African National Congress (ANC) in 1957, which became involved in both trade union and nationalist issues. 21 84. The Industrial Conciliation Act, 1959 covered all workers except those in agriculture and domestic service – who were still subject to the Master and Servants Act – and public service and railway employees, who were covered by specific legislation. 22 It allowed for a system of industrial councils, through which employers and employees would collectively bargain conditions of service in a particular industry, and recognized for the first time African trade unions. Nevertheless, white workers had more voting power than black workers, registration was difficult, and unions were prohibited from becoming involved in political activities. 23 By 1964, 26 African trade unions were registered. 24 85. In 1959, a state of emergency was declared, numerous trade union members were arrested, the ANC and its successor were banned, and the army and police entered the townships. Legislation to control unrest and dissension included criminalizing strikes in some circumstances. In 1962, the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) was established, and in 1963 a split led to the formation of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU). During this period, divisions in the trade union movement mirrored broader divisions in the nationalist movement between trade union and radical nationalist perspectives. 25 86. In the context of increased calls for independence and universal suffrage, the white-minority government in Southern Rhodesia made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. Sanctions were imposed by the international community, which did not recognize Rhodesia as an independent country. Within the country, a guerrilla war of independence intensified over the years, with armies from both the ZAPU and ZANU political parties involved. Many trade unionists, as members of nationalist political parties, were arrested or went into exile during this period, and public order and safety legislation was used to limit and control industrial action. 87. At this time, the government policy on labour aimed to maintain “industrial peace” and ensure an adequate labour supply. 26 For example, an amendment to the Industrial Conciliation Act in 1971 removed the right to strike “when the President is satisfied that a strike ... would prejudice the public interest”. 27 The Government intervened in strikes by both white and black workers. 28 The Law and Order Maintenance Act, 1960 and the Emergency Powers Act, 1960 21 Phimister and van Onselen, op. cit., p. 77. 22 Harris, op. cit., p. 67. 23 Phimister and van Onselen, op. cit., p. 57. 24 Shadur, M., 1994, Labour relations in a developing country (Avebury, Aldershot), p. 60. 25 Phimister and van Onselen, op. cit., p. 87. 26 Harris, op. cit., p. 69. 27 Parliamentary Debates, cited in Harris, op. cit., p. 67. 28 Harris, op. cit., pp. 74–5. Meetings-2009-Zimbabwe C of I-2009-12-0035-3-En.doc/v3 33