8 Effects of gender There are numerous studies that indicate that the consequences for women of organized violence and torture are more severe than for men, and also that this holds for refugee populations. This sample is both torture survivor and refugee. The trend for both groups in seeking refuge and asylum was the same, although there a significant increase in the number of women coming to South Africa in 2005, presumably associated with Operation Murambatsvina. Table 4 Female 1% 1% 6% 8% 11% 66%* 8% 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Male 1% 1% 4% 8% 13% 53% 14% *p=0.025 There were a number of differences between men and women in their profile. As can be seen from Table 5 below, and as was reported in the earlier report, men were more likely to be married than women. Men were also more likely to have had formal employment, to report having been an activist, and claim membership of the MDC. Women were more likely to have been unemployed or only employed in the informal sector, but high percentages of women reported being activists or members of the MDC too. Table 5 Female 31% 18%** 21%* 37% 63% 43% Married Unemployed Informal employment Formal employment Activist MDC member Male 52%* 8% 9% 66%* 77%** 58%** *p=0.005; **p=0.025 Men were also significantly more likely to have experienced multiple violations, 18 although the women had a high number [49%] that did experience multiple violations too. There were no differences in the reported perpetrators, apart from a significantly increased frequency on the part of men to report the Zimbabwe Republic Police [ZRP] as perpetrators. However, there were great differences between men and women in the types of violations experienced. Men reported beatings, unlawful arrest and detention, sensory over-stimulation, witnessing violations, electrical shock, and falanga significantly more frequently than women. Unsurprisingly, women reported rape and indecent assault more frequently than men. However, 18 This was significant on a test of means [p=0.05].