11 Victims of human rights violations in Zimbabwe (pre-1980) Here we will consider those victims of war and torture survivors covered by the Act; that is, those who suffered gross human rights violations between 1972 and 1980. The consequences of organised violence are many and complex, and include both physical and psychological effects, and, since this is a new field there are still controversies about these effects and how best to classify them.19 Whilst the work done on the physical effects of torture and organised violence has generated some controversy, mainly over the neurological effects of physical abuse, the field of work concerned with the psycho-social effects is still in its infancy and there remain considerable conflicts. Most of this conflict is over classifications rather then a dispute over whether there are adverse psychological consequences due to torture. Here, some workers have suggested that the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder(PTSD) concept is too narrow to cover the wide range of effects seen in torture survivors, whilst others have argued that the concept may be adequate with revisions.20 However, it is apparent that this concept does not cover the physical sequelae, or the possible interactions between the physical and psychological sequelae, phenomenologically-speaking. Most work on survivors of violence and torture has been done on Western populations, especially on war veterans, or on survivors who are either refugees or forced immigrants in host countries. These studies generally support the view that PTSD is a frequent consequence of organised violence. Studies of PTSD in torture survivors also demonstrate high rates of the disorder in these persons. For example, in a study of Turkish prisoners, it was shown that 85% of the sample had been tortured. Of the tortured group, 39% showed PTSD, whilst none of the non-tortured group had the disorder, and, of those who showed physical sequelae of torture, 71% had PTSD.21 Since torture survivors will frequently have both physical and psychological sequelae as a consequence of their abuse, this can complicate the clinical picture and research findings.22 Psychological disorder is also found in groups exposed to war and other related trauma. For example, high rates of psychological disorder have been found in survivors of concentration camp experiences, with the most common symptoms being those of PTSD -startle reactions, emotional numbness, intrusive thoughts and nightmares. In these studies, there was a consistent clustering of symptoms, which included the following: depression, anxiety, sleep disorders, fatigue, recurring 19 See Basoglu (1993) Torture and Its Consequences: Current Treatment Approaches, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reeler (1993) Is Torture a Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder?, TORTURE, 4, 59-65. 20 See Turner & Gorst-Unsworth.(1990); Also McNally.(1993), Pathology of post-traumatic stress disorder(PTSD): Boundaries of the syndrome, in M. BASOGLU (ED), “Torture and Its Consequences: Current Treatment Approaches”, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 21 Paker et al.(1993), Psychological effects of torture: An empirical study of tortured and non-tortured non-political prisoners, in M. BASOGLU (ED), “Torture and Its Consequences: Current Treatment Approaches”, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 22 See Helzer et al.(1987), Post-traumatic stress disorder in the general population: Findings of the Epidemiologic Catchment Area Survey, N.E.J.MED., 317, 1630-1634; Kulka et al. (1988), National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study (NVVRS): Description, current status, and initial PTSD estimates, Research Triangle Park, NC: Research Triangle Institute; Kinzie et al.(1984), Post-traumatic stress disorder among survivors of Cambodian concentration camps, AMER.J.PSYCHIAT., 141, 645-650; Allodi. (1980) The psychiatric effects in children and families of victims of political persecution and torture, DAN.MED.BULL., 27, 229-232; Paker et al.(1993), Psychological effects of torture: An empirical study of tortured and non-tortured nonpolitical prisoners, in M. BASOGLU (ED), “Torture and Its Consequences: Current Treatment Approaches”, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Rassmussen.(1990), Medical Aspects of Torture, DANISH MED.BULL., 37, 1-88; Goldfeld et al.(1988), The physical and psychological sequelae of torture: Symptomatology and diagnosis, J.AMER.MED.ASSOC., 259, 2725-2729; Genefke.(1982), Morbidity spectrum amongst torture survivors, ACTA.NEUROLOG.SCAND., 65, 320; Rassmussen & Lunde.(1980), Evaluation of 200 torture victims, DAN.MED.BULL., 27, 241-243.