68 \ Global Youth Development Index and Report 2016 3.1 Introduction Youth-led protests have erupted all over the world in recent times. From the student demonstrations in Africa, South America and Europe to the prodemocracy movements in Hong Kong and the Middle East, there is one message that young people are sending out loud and clear: they want change. Having shaken the governing order in many countries, these protests have increasingly prompted governments, politicians and scholars to take a keener interest in young people’s role in the civic and political affairs of their nations. Around the world, young people are increasingly losing faith in formal political institutions such as parliaments and political parties. In many countries young people are denied a legitimate voice in national affairs, with the right to democratic participation frequently withheld from specific categories of youth, such as those under age 18, females and certain minority groups, particularly migrants. Youth participation in formal political processes may be declining but, from another viewpoint, young people’s engagement with political issues has probably never been higher. This chapter examines the evolving nature of youth participation in political and civic affairs, with a particular focus on the rise of informal or nonformal modes of participation such as protest movements and digital activism. It also summarises how young people are increasingly finding creative and innovative ways to influence policies or decisions and change the course of history at local, national and global levels. 3.2  Youth participation explained Defining youth participation can be problematic and social scientists have put forward different definitions and conceptions of political participation. Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of youth participation, there is a degree of consensus on the key principles. In broad terms, youth participation refers to the process of involving young people in the decisions and institutions that affect their environment and their lives within it.1 This involvement takes place in the social, economic and political domains. Scholars have identified three important levels at which youth participation can take place: • The public sphere is where there are opportunities for youth within existing structures, such as political parties, youth councils or youth parliaments. • The social participation sphere is the space outside formal political structures, such as grassroots campaigns, social movements, faith or identity groups, and housing association and cultural groups. • The individual sphere is where individuals make personal choices and decisions, such as those relating to education, healthcare, religious belief, consumer choice or judicial proceedings.2 Within each of these spheres, there are different levels of participation,3 which vary not only in scope but also in their influence on decisions and outcomes. The distinction between real empowerment and tokenism has been aptly captured in Hart’s ‘ladder of participation’, a conceptual framework4 which categorises the different degrees of participation: from the lower levels where youth involvement is mostly symbolic, up to the higher levels where young people initiate ideas and share the responsibility of decision making with adults (Figure 3.1). Scholars draw a distinction between conventional and unconventional or formal and informal forms of participation.5 Formal participation entails engagement in decision-making processes such as elections, and being involved with public institutions such as national parliaments, local governments or political parties. Informal participation involves activities such as protests, volunteering and digital activism. However, it can be argued that the distinction between formal and informal participation is becoming increasingly redundant with the growing acceptability and popularity of informal forms of participation.6 Youth participation is a right protected by the UN CRC. Article 12 of the CRC is widely recognised as the guiding principle for child and youth participation.7 It states that children have a right to participate in making the decisions that affect their lives and requires adults to listen to them and give their opinions due weight in decision making. Though Article 12 can be applied to numerous areas within the life of a child or young person, it is frequently framed more narrowly as consent, such as gaining the consent of a child or young person for the purpose of adoption or name change. Nevertheless, the right to be included in decision making should be considered a prerequisite for the attainment of all other rights and therefore needs to be interpreted and implemented in conjunction with other rights protected in the Convention.8 In addition, Articles 13 and 15 of the CRC affirm the