We further noted that while inter-party violence had reduced, reports received from civil society groups, later confirmed by the police, showed that intra-party violence rose ahead of these elections. The incorporation of an Electoral Code of Conduct in the Electoral Act (as amended in 2018), and the establishment of inter-party dialogue mechanisms, as well as multiparty liaison committees, to function as alternative dispute resolution mechanisms during elections, assisted in promoting a more favourable campaign environment. The code has been broadened to include other stakeholders, including CSOs, traditional leaders and members of the security services. Under the Code of Conduct, it was intended that, 12 months before an expected election, a multi-party liaison committee would be established. At the national level, this structure seems to have had limited success. However, members of the COG saw the local equivalents in operation, and it is our observation that they worked effectively and could have contributed to the reduction of inter-party friction. These structures need to be strengthened and made more effective. We also noted, and commend, the decision by political parties to sign a peace pledge in June, and all stakeholders who initiated and supported this process. Parallel provincial peace pledges were also signed. They included the National Peace and Reconciliation Commission (NPRC), the multi-party liaison committees, all the other Chapter 12 Commissions, civil society groups and faith-based organisations. Twenty (20) of the 23 presidential candidates contesting the 2018 Harmonised Elections signed this peace pledge, binding themselves to a code of conduct that committed them and their parties to campaign peacefully, and also encouraged tolerance among the different political parties. The NPRC also played a key role in advocating peace messaging during the campaign, by conducting ‘peace caravans’ around the country.10 These were the first elections since independence in 1980 to be held without Mr Robert Mugabe being a candidate, and also without the late MDC-T leader, Mr Morgan Tsvangirai. This led to the emergence of new presidential aspirants from the two main parties, after intense intra-party competition. In addition, there were 21 other presidential candidates.11 10 For the 2018 elections, the NPRC intended to popularise the Electoral Code of Conduct for Political Parties through sensitisation initiatives; setting up an Early Warning Response Hub; advocating dialogue with traditional leaders; engaging with women and youth leaders to harness efforts at community peace-building; supporting the Zimbabwe Gender Commission’s Gender Observatory in its efforts at monitoring women’s political participation; and developing consistent peace messaging for public consumption. 11 See Chapter 2 for the full list of presidential candidates. 39