4. Outcomes are the specific changes in programme participants’ behaviour, knowledge, skills, status and level of functioning. The Kellogg Foundation (2004) prescribes that short-term outcomes should be attainable within one to three years, while mid-term outcomes should be achievable within a time frame of four to six years. The logical progression from short-term to long-term outcomes should be reflected in the impact occurring within a period of about seven to ten years. 5. Impact is the fundamental, intended or unintended change occurring in organisations, communities or systems as a result of programme activities within seven to ten years. The purpose of a logic model is to provide stakeholders with a road map describing a sequence of related events connecting the need for the planned programme with the programme’s desired results. According to the Kellogg Foundation (2004), this takes place in three fundamental ways: firstly, in programme design and planning – where a logic model serves as a planning tool to develop programme strategy and enhance one’s ability to clearly explain and illustrate programme concepts and approach for key stakeholders; secondly, through programme implementation, where a logic model forms the core of a focused management plan that helps to identify and collect the data needed to monitor and improve programming; and, thirdly, by way of programme evaluation and strategic reporting – where a logic model presents programme information and progress towards goals in ways that inform, advocate for a particular programme approach, and teach programme stakeholders. SOCIAL CHANGE Interventions are about change – how the social issue that is the focus of research is enacted and produced at various levels in society (i.e. at the individual, cultural, economic and organisational levels) and what it is hoped such intervention will achieve, based on existing scientific evidence. In international conflict work, this has been made prominent through the work of Shapiro (2006, p. 5). She postulates that changing individuals involves strategies that shift attitudes and perceptions, feelings, behaviours and motivations of participants in an intervention, and she highlights three theories that programmes explicitly or implicitly draw from in their efforts to change individuals, intergroup relations and social structures. Firstly, Shapiro recognises cognitive changes, which she says are, among other things, aimed at transforming hostile or prejudicial attitudes to the other party, providing more hopeful analyses of the conflict and uncovering new possibilities for resolution. Micro-level change strategies include fostering self-reflection and awareness, learning about the other, eliciting an ‘aha’ experience of insight, introducing new information or analysis that is connected to existing knowledge structures, as well as providing ‘safe environments’ and permission to experiment with new ways, and reframing conflictual issues in integrative ways. Secondly, she highlights affective change strategies, which she says are rarely articulated in conflict interventions, although practitioners are quick to acknowledge the important role that emotions such as fear, rage, shame and grief play in preventing resolution and the importance of hope and compassion in supporting it. Programmes often focus on encouraging emotional control (e.g. anger management) among participants to facilitate rational problem solving. Thirdly, Shapiro highlights behavioural change strategies that aim to improve communication, integrative negotiation and problem-solving skills, promote interpersonal cooperation, and reduce the use of hostile language and physical violence, among other vices. Programmes Module 8: Understanding programme monitoring and evaluation 131 8