I n s t i t u t e fo r j us t ice a n d r eco n ci l iat i o n a fr ic a pr o g r a m m e their male relatives are killed.28 Gender justice is an attempt to challenge sexual and genderbased violence and make sure that women have equal access to redress for human-rights violations that they suffer. Unfortunately women are often not included in peace processes and transitional-justice processes, but efforts are being made all over the world to change this. For example, UN Resolution 1325 recognises the impact of armed conflict on women and girls, and calls for the equal participation of women in the prevention and resolution of armed conflict as well as in peace-building processes.29 Healing Healing is about dealing with the wounds of the past, overcoming divisions, and restoring a sense of identity, dignity, potential and belonging to individuals who have been affected by violence or other abuses. Healing often happens more quickly if the truth is made known, and if wrongdoers acknowledge, and are made accountable for, their roles in crime or violence. It is important to note that healing is not an event but a process that often takes a long time. For some, the harm of past violence can be ameliorated by protective and empowering traditions involving collective action, ceremonies, ritual exchanges, prayers and public acts of atonement. Thus, traditional, indigenous and religious approaches, that involve rituals and collective processes, can facilitate individual and community healing through the reestablishment of relationships not only between people but with God, protective spirits and local traditions. Impunity This term is used to describe the failure of a state to investigate and bring perpetrators of human-rights violations to justice. Impunity means that perpetrators do not face prosecution, trial or punishment. As a result, victims are denied effective remedies, do not receive reparations for injuries suffered, their right to know the truth about violations is not ensured, and the necessary steps to prevent a recurrence of violations are seldom taken. States can tolerate and even facilitate impunity in many ways, including: • • • Deliberately creating laws, such as clemency orders, that protect perpetrators and pardon people liable to prosecution; Not taking action against perpetrators and effectively allowing them to go free; and Passing token sentences and limiting punishment for gross violations of human rights. Impunity is common in countries that lack a tradition of upholding the rule of law, have high levels of corruption and/or entrenched systems of patronage; where judicial systems and structures are weak; and where the security forces enjoy special protection and privileges. Institutional reform Institutional reform entails states taking measures to improve governance, and setting up institutions to address the legacy of past violations. Such measures include institutional restructuring, security-sector reform, legal and judicial rebuilding, and activities that support democratisation and fundamental human rights. These reforms should be developed alongside broad public consultations that include victims of past abuses, their families, affected communities and civil society representatives. It is essential that women and minority groups are adequately represented in these consultations, particularly where they have been specifically targeted for abuse. Security-sector reform requires particular attention. According to the International Centre for Transitional Justice, security-sector reforms require a justice centred-approach that uses four dimensions to transform abusive security systems:30 28 Rubio -Marin 2006:23; McKay and Mazurana 2004; Coalition for Women’s Human Rights in Conflict Situations 2007. 29 United Nations 2000. 30 International Centre for Transitional Justice 2011. 8