APCJ_1528_Win2010_00i_122_4 12/30/10 3:22 PM Page 82 82 AFRICA PEACE AND CONFLICT JOURNAL Sabaot Land Defence Force (Kitale and Mt. Elgon), and the Sungu Sungu (in Kisii district, Nyanza).28 TRANSLATING MESSAGES INTO ACTION The political environment during an electoral cycle can affect youth behavior, sometimes producing far-reaching implications, generating opportunities for violence or peace. Along with ideologies, the language and interpretation of political messages of the electoral discourse play key roles in shaping such behavior. During the 2007 campaign, youths translated various cues into action in an effort to make meaning out of political statements and symbols and produce the results desired by the communicators. Venomous statements were made through the media, political platforms, and churches. These institutions buttressed hatred and justified violence, thereby sanctioning it in the eyes of youths. Business people, politicians, members of community associations, religious leaders, and community radio stations and television all have the capacity to facilitate youths’ actions through indoctrination and financial and logistical support. Through manipulation of language and negative ethnic portrayals, Kenya’s political elites invoked change as a necessity during the 2007 campaign. Polarization based on the search for political power had been evident during the 2005 constitutional referendum. For instance, in a bid to rally ODM supporters, an ODM politician had stated, “Wakisimamisha pension ya Moi, then Wakalenjin na Wakamba Watavamia statehouse” (If they stop President Moi’s pension, then Kalenjin and Kamba communities will invade the statehouse).29 This statement was to counter sentiments by a PNU political supporter who had suggested stopping pension payments for the retired president (a Kalenjin) for allegedly involving himself in referendum politics and campaigning against the draft constitution aimed at fostering unity between the Kamba and the Kalenjin. In another instance, a PNU politician was quoted as referring to the Luo as a lazy community of fishermen dependent on the government for their basic needs, unlike the Kikuyu, who were described as hard working and property owners, instigating offense among Luos.30 In the 2007 elections, youths deciphering similar sentiments translated them into action, in most cases by violently targeting the opposing political camp. Messages relayed through local media, especially newspapers and FM radio, cultivated fear and ethnic-based hatred. The media for instance covered attacks in real time, which in turn prompted more people to resort to violence in the name of defending their community or party. Ethnic militias composed of youths capitalized on the disorder and political uncertainty to expand their economic interests and extend their areas of influence by demanding money from members of the public perceived to be economically well to do. Politicians also hired youths to cause mayhem in 28. ‘Report from OHCHR fact-finding mission to Kenya’, 8. 29. Kenya National Commission on Human Rights and the Kenya Human Rights Commission, ‘Behaving badly: Deception, chauvinism and waste during the referendum campaigns’, Nairobi, 2006, 30. 30. Ibid., 30–31.