urban citizens. This is obvious given that OM was specifically targeting the urban areas. However, it is difficult from the data to disaggregate the genuinely rural from those living in peri-urban areas and hence there is the possibility of both over and under-estimating the effects. However, using the questions about residence, and how long people had lived in the area, did not show any major differences, and, the general finding that urban citizens suffered greater hardship stands.4 Lived Poverty Given the above, it would then be expected that Lived Poverty would be significantly worse for urban citizens in 2005 as a consequence of OM, but also that poverty would be greater for rural citizens generally, as is usually the case in Zimbabwe. 2004 2005 2009 Figure 2: Changes in Lived Poverty, Rural & Urban How often gone without cash income? Rural Urban How often gone without fuel to cook your food? Rural Urban Rural How often gone without medicine or medical treatment? Urban How often gone without clean water? 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% As can be seen from Figure 2, Lived Poverty is higher for rural residents as opposed to urban residents before, during and after OM, but it is also evident that Lived Poverty increased significantly for urban residents in 2005. For every indicator urban folk reported an increase in poverty, and some of these had even worsened in 2009: access to food, clean water, and cooking fuel, all worsened in both 2005 and 2009. The higher rates of Lived Poverty for rural citizens are an expected finding, but it is also evident that urban citizens were significantly affected by OM, and these were sustained through to 2009 at least. Political Participation Political Participation has to do with citizens’ participation in the socio-political life of the country, and, as seen above, the measure was constructed from four questions from the Afrobarometer surveys. 4 Question4A: How recently did you come to stay in this area? Question 5: Before you came to stay here, where were you living? 8