An in-depth Study on the impacts of Operation Murambatsvina 2. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY As indicated above, there were a number of areas in the first two studies that seemed to deserve further attention, either because the data gathered was insufficient for a good understanding of the issue, or because the issue itself was of particular significance, or because greater understanding could be crucial to identifying the kinds of assistance that should be given to the victims of Operation Murambatsvina. We highlighted a number of issues in relation to trauma in the overview report, but here we deal in greater detail with this issue. 2.1 Trauma Whilst there has been continual reference to the suffering of those affected by Operation Murambatsvina, little attention has been given to the mental health consequences of this social upheaval. Displacement always has mental health consequences, whether this is due to natural disaster or manmade events, and, in respect of the latter, this applies to whether the displacement is internal or external. For example, the prevalence of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder [PTSD]xv and Depression is often 2 to 3 times higher in refugee populations than in a normal populationxvi. As was noted in the previous ActionAid International reports, significant numbers of those interviewed reported suffering trauma as a consequence of Operation Murambatsvina. In the first study, on Harare, almost 40% of respondents interviewed claimed that they had been traumatized by the operation, and also, despite the low proportion of child headed households, this seemed to be reported in 82% of child headed households. In the second study, very similar rates of trauma were reported, with 35% of the sample alleging that they were suffering trauma. These reports can too easily be discounted as unsubstantiated complaints in the absence of any corroborating evidence of trauma, and hence we were determined to assess the veracity of these claims, as well as to determine the need for psycho-social assistance for the victims. 2.1.1 Trauma and complex emergencies The term “complex emergency” is increasingly being used to describe situations of political conflict, in the main, that result in the massive destabilization of a state’s capacity to care for its citizensxvii. As Mollica and his associates have put this: “A complex emergency is a social catastrophe marked by the destruction of the affected population’s political, economic, socio-cultural, and health care infrastructures”xviii. In our view, no better description could characterize Zimbabwe today, whether or not the causes are examined. Now complex emergencies can quite clearly occur as a consequence of natural events, as in the recent Asian tsunami or the effects of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans, but they can also occur as a consequence of human intervention as in periods of civil war or low intensity conflict characterized by organized violence and torture. We should here therefore make a distinction between, on the one hand, accidental harm causing trauma and, on the other hand, deliberate infliction of harm as is seen in wars, civil wars, low intensity conflict, genocide, and widespread political repression. Now we are not concerned here to describe the many ways in which trauma may be inflicted during complex emergencies, but rather wish to very briefly describe their effectsxix. The 5