Generation Hope: Young People in a Changing World the opportunities available to individuals as a result of the core capabilities that provide the essential underpinnings of a ‘good human life’. Nussbaum regards capabilities as closely related to human rights, covering what she refers to as ‘first generation rights’, such as civil liberties and opportunities for political participation, and ‘second generation rights’, such as opportunities for education and employment.28 Sen illustrates the advantages of a capability approach by pointing out that while the gross domestic products (GDPs) of Mexico and Brazil are significantly higher than those of India and Sri Lanka, life expectancy and child mortality are far better in the two economically poorer countries.29 Although Sen has expressed scepticism about the possibility of providing a list of capabilities, Nussbaum has suggested a range of specific capabilities that are essential to a ‘good human life’ (such as ‘being able to have good health, adequate nutrition, adequate shelter, opportunities for sexual satisfaction and choice in reproduction, and mobility’), and endorses the operationalisation of capabilities in order to compare nations in areas such as health and education.30 Using the capabilities approach as a theoretical framework for the YDI, the aim is to assess the extent to which countries provide effective preconditions for youth development, whereby policies are framed as part of a ‘process of enlarging people’s choices’31 and providing the freedoms essential to fulfil those capabilities and choices. In this context, poverty is regarded not simply as income deprivation but as capability-deprivation, as it restricts an individual’s ability to participate in civic and political life, engage economically, live to old age, and so on.32 Here the human development paradigm has two main components: the enhancement of human abilities (identified broadly as the ability to choose to live a long and healthy life, to acquire knowledge, and to have a decent standard of living) and the conditions for human development (participation in political and community life, environmental sustainability, human security and rights, and gender equality).33 In this context, the Commonwealth defines youth development as ‘enhancing the status of young people, empowering them to build on their competencies and capabilities for life. It will enable them to contribute to and benefit from a politically stable, economically viable, and legally supportive environment, ensuring their full participation as active citizens in their countries.’34 With an emphasis on empowerment, this definition focuses on the agency of young people, placing them at the heart of their own development, where they can build the competencies and capabilities to live a life of their choosing, and also be citizens who can contribute positively to national development. Simultaneously, the definition recognises that social and economic contexts and inappropriate policies can limit their capability. Positive youth development requires a supportive environment and fares best in contexts of political, legal and economic stability that allow and encourage young people to participate freely and openly in political and civic life. Where young people are denied access to education or face restrictions based on gender or family wealth, where they are poorly nourished and have limited access to healthcare, where they are denied opportunities for fulfilling employment or to a living wage, or where full political and civic participation is blocked, then they are disempowered and have their capabilities curtailed. 1.4 Prioritising youth development in policy and action At a global level, youth-related issues have never been as high a priority as they are currently. The role of the UN Secretary-General’s Envoy on Youth was created in 2013;35 190 countries have a national authority responsible for young people;36 and youth summits – such as the UN ECOSOC and UNESCO Youth Forums, the Commonwealth Youth Forum, and the World Youth Conference – have become influential platforms on the international stage. These efforts build on longstanding international youth policy frameworks such as the UN World Programme of Action for Youth (WPAY) and the Commonwealth Plan of Action for Youth Empowerment (PAYE). Against this backdrop, key UN agencies have developed strategies to guide their work with young people. The UNDP Youth Strategy37 and the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) Strategy on Adolescents and Youth38 lay out their priorities in youth development, including increased economic empowerment, civic engagement and participation, resilience-building,39 sexual and reproductive health, and a special focus on marginalised and disadvantaged youth, especially girls.40 Several development agencies have also taken steps to prioritise youth. For example, the UK \9