This was evident in Zimbabwe during 2002 and 2008. One of the more disturbing features of elections in Zimbabwe has been the use of schools as both places where political campaigning takes place and even their use as so-called “bases” for militia activity. By implication, the use of schools as places of political activity (and even worse as places of violence) will involve children in witnessing events harmful to their psychological and moral development, and there is worrying evidence to this effect in Zimbabwe. The concerns about schools as places that become targets in armed conflict has now attracted international concern with the establishment of the Global Campaign to Protect Education from Attack (GCPEA). Set up by a steering committee that includes UNESCO, UNICEF, UNHCR, Save the Children, Human Rights Watch, and others, this campaign has been raising international opinion about the dangers faced by children and teachers during armed conflict. This initiative is strongly bolstered by a resolution of the United Nations Security Council in 20115. GCPEA actually lists Zimbabwe as one of the countries of concern, citing a report by Save the Children as well as local studies from Zimbabwean organisations6. GCPEA identifies 33 countries worldwide in which attacks against education take place, with the following 13 African countries seen as places of concern: Central African Republic, Cote d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, and Zimbabwe. Not all of the concern about these African countries is about armed conflict per se, although in many of these countries there is armed conflict as would be defined as such in international humanitarian law. As pointed out above, in several countries, including Kenya and Zimbabwe, the concerns of GCPEA arise around elections, but it is evident from the analysis briefly described above that violence would be present in elections in many more countries than these two. In Zimbabwe, the involvement of schools as “bases” i.e. places of violence and for political rallies was raised in 20007, and more comprehensively described in 2002. In a report of the Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum on the 2002 election, 41% of the “bases” identified were at schools8. A more comprehensive report, based on a survey of 1,086 teachers in 2011, found that 51% of the sample (which was nationally representative) had had direct experience of political violence in 2008, but more disturbing than this was the finding that, of this group, 47% reported that the violence had taken place at school and during working hours9. Resolution 1998 (2011). Adopted by the Security Council at its 6581st meeting, on 12 July 2011. (S/RES/1998 (2011). 6 Case Studies on the Role of Politicisation of Education in Conflict-affected Countries. UNESCO/ Save the Children, 2010; PTUZ (2012), Every School has a Story. A Preliminary Report on Teachers Experiences of Elections in Zimbabwe. Report produced by PTUZ and RAU. February 2012. HARARE: PROGRESSIVE TEACHERS UNION OF ZIMBABWE and RESEARCH & ADVOCACY UNIT; Pswarayi, L, & Reeler, A.P (2102), „Fragility‟ and education in Zimbabwe: Assessing the impact of violence on education. December 2012, HARARE: RESEARCH & ADVOCACY UNIT. 7 Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum (2001), Who was responsible? A consolidated analysis of pre-election violence in Zimbabwe, HARARE: ZIMBABWE HUMAN RIGHTS NGO FORUM. 8 Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum (2002), “Are They Accountable?: Examining alleged violators and their violations pre and post the Presidential Election March 2002”, HARARE: ZIMBABWE HUMAN RIGHTS NGO FORUM. 9 See again PTUZ (2012), Every School has a Story. A Preliminary Report on Teachers‟ Experiences of Elections in Zimbabwe. Report produced by PTUZ and RAU. February 2012. HARARE: PROGRESSIVE TEACHERS UNION OF ZIMBABWE and RESEARCH & ADVOCACY UNIT. See also PTUZ (2012), Political Violence and Intimidation of Zimbabwean Teachers. May 2012. Report prepared for the Progressive Teachers Union of Zimbabwe [PTUZ] by the Research and Advocacy Unit [RAU]. HARARE: PROGRESSIVE TEACHERS UNION OF ZIMBABWE. 5 6