provisions in this regard lack a realistic mechanism for enforcement, as the Electoral Act confers limited power on ZEC to actually deal with media violations. Social media played a crucial role through the election period with two distinct groups from across the political divide competing for space to push their party agendas. All political leaders were very active on social media. ZANU-PF and MDC-Alliance presidential candidates permanently communicated their plans, rallies and shared information with their supporters via Facebook and Twitter. Independent candidates also enjoyed support on social media. Despite positive campaign messages, social media became also a tool to spread fake news and abusive language, especially in the lead-up to the elections. Hate speech against opponents increased on platforms such as Twitter, Facebook and WhatsApp and abusive language was also used, especially against women who had left the Nelson Chamisa-led MDC-Alliance and joined the Thokozani Khupe faction. Hate speech targeted also the ZEC chairperson Priscilla Chigumba. XI. Participation of Women Affirmative measures for the representation of women mean women are present in parliament, but the number of women put forward as candidates by political parties remains very low Women were elected to parliament in large numbers during these elections. This was due to the presence of two special measures to enhance the political participation of women included in the Constitution. It is required that, for the 60 elected seats in the Senate (20 seats are selected otherwise), political party lists must all be headed by a woman, and each must list male and female candidates alternately, securing at least 50% of the seats for women. This means that, of the total of 80 Senate seats, at least 30 automatically go to women. In addition, two senators are elected by an electoral college to represent persons with disabilities, one of whom must be a woman. Therefore, at a minimum, 31 of the senators are women. A total of 35 Senate seats were secured by women this time, compared to the 38 seats secured by women in 2013. On neither occasion did a woman secure a single one of the 18 seats which are allocated to representatives of the National Council of Chiefs. Unlike the provisions related to the Senate, which are foreseen as permanent in nature, a temporary special measure was applied to the National Assembly, by which 60 seats (of the total of 270) are reserved for women, with the allocation determined according to a party-list proportional representation system. This applied in 2013 and this year, but has now come to an end. The women’s movement is advocating extension of this measure. Of the 210 directly elected seats in the National Assembly, women won just 25 of these seats in this election, compared to 26 in 2013. The two houses of parliament have a combined membership of 350 parliamentarians. Of this figure, 116 are female, which gives women a 33.14% representation overall. This represents a decrease on the figure of 35% in the parliament elected in 2013. It does, however, represent a vast amelioration over the previous level of 17% which had been achieved by women in 2008. 30