To shore up its power, ZANU-PF since 2000 has relied upon a patronage system to reward and retain the loyalty of the military. Former and sitting military officers have been appointed as ministerial permanent secretaries, directors in ministerial departments, provincial governors, and other key posts.6 Because of its need for revenue, ZANU-PF in government has tried to increase its influence and control over the mining industry, which accounted for 40 percent of Zimbabwe’s exports in 2008.7 It has also sought to placate its popular base by demonstrating an effort to manage the country’s resources. On March 7, 2008, three weeks before national elections, President Mugabe signed into law the Indigenization and Economic Empowerment Act, which requires all public companies to be 51 percent owned by “indigenous” Zimbabweans. Diamonds in Marange—Unclear Legal Title to the Fields In June 2006 villagers discovered diamonds in the Chiadzwa area of Marange district, which geologists estimate to be spread over a 26-square-kilometer area.8 The diamond fields are commonly referred to as the Marange diamond fields. Chiadzwa is a remote, dry, and hilly area comprising some 30 villages that are divided into two administrative wards (Mukwada, ward 29 and Chiadzwa, ward 30). The combined population of the two wards is estimated to be 20,000.9 The nearest city, 100 kilometers to the northeast, is Mutare, the provincial capital of Manicaland; and to the south, the nearest town is Birchenough Bridge, about 60 kilometers away. Diamond mining is concentrated at the foot of Shonje hills, over a sparsely populated 13 square kilometers.10 The Marange diamond fields brought the number of diamond sites in Zimbabwe to three.11 The other two sites—River Ranch and Murowa diamond mines—are deep mines exploited by private commercial enterprises. The discovery of a third diamond field raised the potential 6 For example, Retired Major General Paradzayi Zimondi, the current head of the Zimbabwe Prison Service, is a former senior military officer and the chairman of the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission, Justice George Chiweshe is also a former military officer. 7 See “Zim loses out as chaos in Chiadzwa rages on,” The Zimbabwe Independent, October 31, 2008. Gold, platinum, and iron alloys accounted for the bulk of Zimbabwe’s mineral exports, with diamonds constituting a relatively small proportion. “Zimbabwe, Diamonds and the Wrong Side of History,” Partnership Africa Canada, March 2009, p. 3. 8 Human Rights Watch interviews with geologists S.M., G.M., and T.G., Marange, February 21, 2009. 9 Human Rights Watch interview with local councillors B.K. and F.M., Marange, February 22, 2009. 10 Human Rights Watch interviews with police officer O.D., Mutare, February 21, 2009; and with local councillors B.K. and F.M., Marange, February 22, 2009. 11 The other two are River Ranch, near Beitbridge, close to the South African border, and Murowa, near Zvishavane, in south central Zimbabwe. Diamonds in the Rough 12