practice of state making, and that the identifying of certain groups as ‘unworthy’ in order to
restrict their rights and living spaces has a long history. Integral to the definition of any
modern state is the definition of who has the right to be a citizen – and who is an “other”, and
can be deported, for example. The very concept of a ‘sovereign state’ implies the right of
governments to have “control over space, resources and populations – including the latter’s
movement or confinement”.17
Within many states, the rhetoric of sovereignty has been used to deem certain citizens
unworthy,18 and in Zimbabwe itself, shifting legal and rhetorical definitions of who is an
authentic citizen have been a noteworthy phenomenon at different points in its past and
present. Pre‐independence, racist divisions were defined in statutes and enforced, causing
forced resettlements and hierarchies of “worth” among citizens. And in the 1980s, people
mainly from Matabeleland who supported the political opposition were identified as the
‘enemy’ and ‘dissidents’ – the chaff that needed to be swept away by “Gukurahundi”. This
rhetoric of otherness was used to justify five years of torture and murder in this region – and
also resulted in displacements and a wave of diasporisation out of Matabeleland and the
Midlands, affecting thousands.
…a common characteristic of [Zimbabwean] state driven campaigns of exclusion and
displacement has been the practice of identifying a dangerous other… and then
cleansing (by fire, demolition or removal), containing (by imprisonment or
encampment) or excising (by torture or even death) the contaminating danger. Such
dehumanising actions not only dislodge people from place, but from the rights and
entitlements of citizenship, and from belonging to the nation as a whole.19
Other displacements both on small and large scales occurred in Zimbabwe prior to OM. in
October 1983, unaccompanied women in urban areas were suddenly deemed to be
prostitutes and were routinely arrested, in another version of “operation clean up”. In 1992,
more than 4,000 residents of Churu Farm, near Harare, were evicted in a politically motivated
decision. They were resettled in Hatcliffe – from where they were forcibly evicted during OM.
Hammar recounts the forced displacement of some residents of rural Gokwe In the late
1990s; they had lived in the area since the 1980s and were suddenly identified as “squatters”
for politically expedient reasons.20 And since 2000, a conservatively‐estimated 300,000 farm
workers and their families have been evicted from commercial farms as a result of farm
invasions, while others have been ‘displaced in situ’ – they have remained on the farms, but
have had to change their mode of survival and negotiate new relationships with resettled
farmers who cannot pay them.21
As a result of changes to legislation in recent years, thousands of Zimbabwean‐born residents,
including migrant workers from Malawi and Zambia whose parents were born outside the
17 Ibid.
18 Hammar cites the exclusion of Ugandan Asians under Idi Amin. The racist and exclusionary rhetoric of
Apartheid, or the anti Tutsi rhetoric in Rwanda ahead of the genocide are further obvious examples of states
selecting who is a legitimate citizen.
19 Hammar (2008): op cit.
20 ibid.
21 Magaramombe, Godrey (2010) 'Displaced in Place': Agrarian Displacements, Replacements and Resettlement
among Farm Workers in Mazowe District; in Hammar, Mcgregor and Landau, Displacing Zimbabwe: crisis and
construction in Southern Africa. This JSAS special edition explores the complexities of the impact of the Zimbabwe
crisis on the means of economic survival and identity: pages 361 ‐ 375
16
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