Of the types of torture reported, physical assaults were the most common, with beatings of one kind or other the most common. The study did not report the frequencies of assaults, but the sample apparently reported more than one encounter with organised violence and torture. The study also reported high rates of psychological torture (threats, death threats, etc), and, as indicated above, high rates of witnessing torture. Much of the torture and abuse happened publicly, and frequently at so-called “pungwes”. This public gathering of people, usually taking place from sunset to sunrise, and the subsequent abuse and “loyalty testing” led the IRCT to term this “mass psychological torture”51, as mentioned previously. 4.4 ActionAid The next study that is considered is that produced by ActionAid International in 2005, referred to briefly earlier. This work was carried out as a response to the mass displacements that took place in 2005, the so-called Operation Murambatsvina, or “Operation Restore Order” (the English moniker does not accurately reflect the chiShona which means “drive out the trash”). In a series of studies, ActionAid International and various Zimbabwe partners demonstrated the catastrophic nature of these displacements on ordinary Zimbabwe citizens52, and a subsequent study focused particularly upon trauma, which included a survey of the types of trauma suffered both during Operation Murambatsvina and in previous decades53. The survey finally drew on a sample of 1195 persons, drawn from Harare, Bulawayo, and Mutare’. Apart from a questions dealing with Operation Murambatsvina itself, the survey also used the SRQ-8 and a locally-used version of the Harvard Trauma Questionnaire [HTQ] in order to determine the prevalence of psychological disorder and the types of trauma experienced. TABLE 8. Trauma over the years: Percentage of persons reporting trauma Experience per year. Source: ActionAid International.2005. HARARE BULAWAYO MUTARE <1980 27% 45% 46% 1980-1987 30% 58% 47% 1990-1997 57% 62% 70% 1998-2000 81% 65% 90% 2001-2004 89% 82% 98% 2005 97% 93% 100% As can also be seen from Table 8, high rates of trauma events were reported generally with the frequency of trauma reportedly increasing over the years, with the most dramatic shift occurring after 1998. There was also a significant difference seen in Bulawayo in the period 1980-1987, which corresponds to the period of the Gukurahundi54. TABLE 9 Frequency of gross human rights violations, 1980 to 2005. Source: ActionAid International. 2005 SEVERE BEATING TORTURE IMPRISONMENT RAPE Pre-1980 6.1% 5.3% 5.2% 2% 1980-1987 6.9% 8.1% 4.8% 3.3% 1990-1997 5.3% 2.8% 4.3% 1.7% 1998-2000 24% 16% 16.4% 8.4% 2001-2004 31% 21.7% 20.6% 10.7% 2005 19.9% 13.9% 23.4% 8.2% 51 52 53 54 Page 16 See again IRCT (2000), Organised Violence and Torture in Zimbabwe, 6th June 2000, Copenhagen and Harare, COPENHAGEN & HARARE: IRCT & AMANI TRUST; IRCT (2001) Organised Violence and Torture in Zimbabwe, 24th May 2001, Copenhagen and Harare, COPENHAGEN & HARARE: IRCT & AMANI TRUST. See A Study on the Impact of “Operation Murambatsvina/Restore Order” in 26 Wards of Harare High Density Housing Areas ActionAid International in Collaboration with Combined Harare Residents Association (CHRA) July 2005; A Study on the impact of “OPERATION MURAMBATSVINA/RESTORE ORDER” in Zimbabwe, ActionAid International – Southern Africa Partnership Programme (SAPP-ZIMBABWE) in collaboration with Combined Harare Residents Association (CHRA) and Zimbabwe Peace Project (ZPP), August 2005. See ActionAid (2005), An in-depth study on the impact of Operation Murambatsvina/Restore Order in Zimbabwe. ActionAid International in collaboration with the Counselling Services Unit (CSU), Combined Harare Residents’ Association (CHRA) and the Zimbabwe Peace Project (ZPP). November 2005; ActionAid (2006), “PRIMUM NON NOCERE”. The consequences for the mental health of Zimbabweans affected by “Operation Murambatsvina”. ActionAid International in collaboration with the Counselling Services Unit (CSU), Combined Harare Residents’ Association (CHRA) and the Zimbabwe Peace Project (ZPP). January 2006. See CCJP & LRF (1997), Breaking the Silence Building True Peace A Report on the Disturbances in Matabeleland and the Midlands 1980 to 1989. Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace and the Legal Resources Foundation; ZIMABABWE HUMAN RIGHTS ASSOCIATION (1999), Choosing the Path to Peace and Development; Coming to Terms with Human Rights Violations of the 1982-1987 Conflict in Matabeleland and Midlands Provinces, HARARE: ZIMBABWE HUMAN RIGHTS ASSOCIATION.